Caribbean pearls? Public health in Haiti and Cuba
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22380/2539472X.1227Keywords:
AIDS, HIV, Haiti, Cuba, poverty, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), cost-effectivenessAbstract
Using the lens of aids trajectories in haiti and cuba the article examines the health of these two countries, and in so doing, challenges currently predominant ideologies in international public health, including over-emphasis on costeffectiveness and sustainability as criteria to allocate resources. In Haiti, where AIDS is the number one cause of all adult deaths, the prevalence of HIV is the highest in the Americas. In Cuba, where the prevalence of HIV is the lowest in the Americas, its government has continued to improve health indicators and to provide comprehensive care for all AIDS patients despite a deepening economic crisis. The two distinct stories of AIDS in Cuba and Haiti mirror the nations’ divergent paths to economic development: Cuba’s promoting social and economic rights for its citizens, and Haiti’s succumbing to increased inequalities and foreign debt. It is not the treatment of the destitute sick with AIDS that is unsustainable, but rather the ever-widening global outcome gap that prohibits medical technology from reaching those most in need of it: the poor. Instead of focusing on GNP and other standard economic measures, the health of the poor should be considered the most telling public policy and international public health outcome.
Downloads
References
Attaran, A. Y J. Sachs. 2001. “Defining and refining international donor support for combating the AIDS Pandemic”. Lancet. 357 (9249). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03576-5
Banco Mundial. 1994. Social indicators of development. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore
–. 1997. Poverty reduction and human development in the Caribbean: A cross-country study. World Bank Discussion Paper (WDP 366). Banco Mundial. Washington.
–. 2001. HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean. Obtenido el 19 de septiembre de 2003 en http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ NEWS/0,contentMDK:20020360~menuPK:34457~pagePK:34370 ~piPK:34424,00.html.
–. 2003a. “Long term economic impact of HIV/AIDS. More damaging than previously thought”. World Bank press release, no. 2003/24/S. Obtenido el 19 de septiembre de 2003 en http:// web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK: 20120894~menuPK:34463~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSite PK:4607,00.html.
–. 2003b. Cuba at a glance. Obtenido el 19 de septiembre de 2003 en www.worldbank.org/cgi–in/sendoff.cgi?page=%2Fdata %2 Fcountrydata%2Faag%2Fcub_aag.pdf.
Banque de la République D'Haïti. 2000. Rapport annuel. Banque de la République d'Haïti. Puerto Príncipe.
Barberia, Lorena Y A. Castro (eds.). 2003. Seminar on Cuban health system: Its evolution, accomplishments, and challenges. Working Papers on Latin America, Paper no. 02/03–4. David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University. Cambridge.
Barberia, L., A. Castro, P. Farmer, C. Farmer, R. Gusmão, J. Y. Kim, E. Levcovitz, D. López-Acuña, K. Mate, P. Schroeder, G. Tambini Y E. Yen. 2002. The impact of health systems reform on the control and prevention of infectious diseases in Latin America and the Caribbean. Organización Panamericana de la Salud y Partners In Health. Washington.
Barnett, T. Y A. Whiteside. 2002. AIDS in the twenty-first century: Disease and globalization. Palgrave Macmillan. Nueva York. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230599208
Beinfield, H. 2001. “Dreaming with two feet on the ground: Acupuncture in Cuba”. Clinical Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine Journal. 2 (2). Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.globalexchange.org/ countries/cuba/sustainable/natTradMedicine/caomj0601.html. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1054/caom.2001.0077
Bell, C., S. Devarajan Y H. Gersbach. 2003. The long-run economic costs of AIDS: Theory and an application to South Africa. Banco Mundial. Washington. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www1.worldbank.org/hiv_aids/docs/BeDeGe_BP_total2.pdf. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-3152
Blower. S Y P. Farmer. 2003. “Predicting the public health impact of antiretrovirals: preventing HIV in developing countries”. AIDScience. 3 (11). Obtenido el 3 de octubre de 2003 de www.aidscience.org/ Articles/aidscience033.htm.
Brock, D. W. 2003. “Separate spheres and indirect benefits”. Cost effectiveness and resource allocation. 1 (4). Obtenido el 9 de junio de 2003 en www.resource-allocation.com/content/1/1/4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-7547-1-4
Castro, A. 2003. “Determinantes socio-políticos de la infección por VIH: violencia estructural y culpabilización de la víctima: conferencia plenaria”. En Segundo foro latinoamericano de VIH/ sida y ETS. 22. La Habana, Cuba. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.foro2003.sld.cu/conferencia/index_d.php?conferencia =2&lang=e.
Castro, A. Y P. Farmer. 2003. “Infectious disease in Haiti: HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and social inequalities”. EMBO Reports. 4 (6s). – DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.embor844
–. 2004. “Health and economic development”. En Carol R. Ember y Melvin Ember (eds.). Encyclopedia of medical anthropology: Health and lllness in the world's cultures. Kluwer/ Plenum. Nueva York.
CAstro, A., P. Farmer Y L. Barberia. 2002. Control of HIV/AIDS in Cuba: A briefing memo for President Carter's visit to Cuba. Carter Center. Atlanta.
Castro, A., P. Farmer J. Y. Kim, E. Levcovitz, D. López-Acuña, J. S. Mukherjee, P. Schroeder Y E. Yen. 2003. “Scaling up health systems to respond to the challenge of HIV/AIDS in Latin America and the Caribbean”. Special edition of the Health Sector Reform Initiative in Latin America and the Caribbean. 8. Pan American Health Organization. Washington.
Castro, A., V. Togores Y L. Barberia. 2003. “Access to medicines in Cuba: The hampering and burgeoning effects of the economic crisis”. Trabajo presentado en la Conferencia anual de la Asociación Americana de Antropología, Chicago.
Cayemittes, M., M. F. Placide, B. Barrère, S. Mariko Y B. Sévère. 2001. Enquête mortalité, morbidité et utilisation des services, Haïti 2000. Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population, Institut Haïtien de l'Enfance y ORC Macro. Calverton.
Centers For Disease Control And Prevention (CDC). 1994. “International notes certification of poliomyelitis eradication-The Americas, 1994”. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 43 (39).
–. 2002. “U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 2002”. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. 14. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hasr1402/2002SurveillanceReport.pdf.
–. 2000. “Outbreak of Poliomyelitis-Dominican Republic and Haiti, 2000”. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 49 (48).
Chomsky, A. 2000. “'The threat of a good example': Health and revolution in Cuba”. En J. Y. Kim, J. V. Millen, A. Irwin y J. Gershman (eds.). Dying for growth: Global inequality and the health of the poor. Common Courage Press. Monroe.
Comisión Económica Para América Latina y el Caribe (Cepal). 1997 [2000]. La economía cubana: reformas estructurales y desempeño en los '90. Fondo de Cultura Económica. México.
–. 2001. Cuba: evolución económica durante 2000. LC/MEX/ L.465 Cepal. México.
Creese, A., K. Floyd, A. Alban Y L. Guinness. 2002. “Cost-effectiveness of HIV/AIDS interventions in Africa: a systematic review of the evidence”. Lancet. 359 (9318). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08595-1
Desormeaux, J., M. P. Johnson, J. S. Coberly et al. 1996. “Widespread HIV counseling and testing linked to a community-based Tuberculosis control program in a high-risk population”. Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization. 30 (1).
Domínguez, J. I. 1978. Cuba: Order and revolution. Harvard University Press. Cambridge. EISENBERG, L. 1984. “Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, where are you now that we need you?”. American Journal of Medicine. 77 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(84)90114-1
Escobar, A. 1995. Encountering development: The making and unmaking of the Third World. Princeton University Press. Princeton.
FAO (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación). 2000. The state of food insecurity in the world.
FAO. Roma. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.fao.org/FOCUS/ E/SOFI00/img/sofirep–e.pdf.
Farmer, P. 1992. AIDS and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame. University of California Press. Berkeley.
–. 1996. “Haiti's lost years: Lessons for the Américas”. Current Issues in Public Health. 2 (3).
–. 1999. Infections and inequalities: The modern plagues. University of California Press. Berkeley.
–. 2003a. Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor. University of California Press. Berkeley.
–. 2003b [1994]. ¿Haití para qué? Segunda edición. Hiru Argitaletxea. Hondarribia, Guipúzcoa. Versión original en inglés: The uses of Haiti. Segunda edición. Common Courage Press. Monroe.
Farmer, P. Y A. Castro. 2003. “Castigo a los más pobres de América: el embargo de la ayuda internacional crea una crisis humanitaria en Haití”. El País (12 de enero).
Farmer, P., M. C. Smith Fawzi Y P. Nevil. 2003. “Unjust embargo of aid for Haiti”. Lancet. 361 (9355). Farmer, P., F. Léandre, J. Mukherjee, M. Claude, P. Nevil, M. Smithfawzi, S. Koenig, A. Castro, M. Becerra, J. Sachs, A. Attaran Y J. Y. Kim. 2001. “Community-based approaches to HIV treatment in resource-poor settings”. Lancet. 358.
Farmer, P., F. Léandre, J. Mukherjee, R. Gupta, L. Tarter Y J. Y. Kim. 2001. “Community-based treatment of advanced HIV disease: introducing DOT-HAART (Directly Observed Therapy with Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy)”. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 79 (12).
Feinsilver, J. 1993. Healing the masses: Cuban health politics at home and abroad. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Ferrer, A. 2000. “Thinking through Haiti: Cuban slave society and the haitian revolution”. Documento de trabajo. New York University. Obtenido el 3 de octubre de 2003 en www.princeton. edu/plasweb/ news/Ferrer4–4.doc.
Freedberg, K. A., E. Losina, M. C. Weinstein et al. 2000. “The cost effectiveness of combination antiretroviral therapy for HIV disease”. New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (11). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103153441108
Freedberg, K. Y Y. Yazdanpanah. 2003. “Cost-effectiveness of HIV therapies in resource-poor settings”. En J-P. Moatti, B. Coriat, Y. Souteyrand, T. Barnett, J. Dumoulin y Y-A. Flori (eds.). Economics of AIDS and access to HIV/AIDS care in developing countries. Issues and challenges. Agence Nationale de Recherches sur le Sida. París.
Garber, A. M. 2000. “Advances in cost-effectiveness analysis of health interventions”. En A. J. Culyer y J. P. Newhouse (eds.). Handbook of Health Economics. Vol. 1. Elsevier Science. Amsterdan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0064(00)80163-8
Gebo, K. A., R. E. Chaisson, J. G. Folkemer, J. G. Bartlett Y R. D. Moore. 1999. “Costs of HIV medical care in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy”. AIDS. 13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199905280-00013
Fondo Mundial de Lucha Contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. 2002a. Haiti's response to HIV/AIDS. Application to the global fund to fight AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria. Fondo Mundial de Lucha contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. Ginebra. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.theglobalfund.org/search/docs/1HTIH_483_29_ full.pdf.
–. 2002b. Global Fund Money to scale pp AIDS treatment and prevention efforts in Haiti. Fondo Mundial de Lucha contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. Ginebra. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.theglobalfund.org/en/media_center/press/ pr_021202.asp.
–. 2004. Coping with chaos: How Haiti's AIDS projects are still winning. Ginebra. Fondo Mundial de Lucha contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.theglobalfund.org/en/media_center/press/pr_040305.asp.
–. 2005a. Current grant commitments and disbursements. Fondo Mundial de Lucha contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. Ginebra. Obtenido el 16 de marzo de 2005 en www.theglobalfund.org/ en/funds_raised/commitments/
–. 2005b. Pledges and contributions to the flobal fund. Fondo Mundial de Lucha contra el SIDA, la Tuberculosis y la Malaria. Ginebra. Obtenido el 16 de marzo de 2005 en www.theglobalfund. org/en/funds_raised/pledges/
Gold, M. R., J. E. Siegel, L. B. Russell Y M. C. Weinstein (eds.). 1996. Cost-effectiveness in health and medicine: the report of the panel on cost-effectiveness in health and medicine. Oxford University Press. Nueva York.
González-Núñez, I., M. Díaz-Jidy Y J. Pérez-Ávila. 2000. “La transmisión materno infantil del VIH/SIDA en Cuba”. Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropical. 52 (3).
Gwatkin, D. R. Y M. Guillot. 2000. The burden of disease among the global poor: Current situation, future trends, and implications for strategy. Banco Mundial. Washington.
Holtgrave, D. R. (ed.). 1998. Handbook of economic evaluation of HIV prevention programs. Plenum Press. Nueva York. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1878-9
Holtgrave D. R., N. L. Qualls Y J. D. Graham. 1996. “Economic evaluation of HIV prevention programs”. Annual Reviews of Public Health. 17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pu.17.050196.002343
Hsieh, Y., C. Chen, S. Lee Y H. De Arazoza. 2001. “On the recent sharp increase in HIV detections in Cuba”. AIDS. 15 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200102160-00023
Iriart, C., E. E. Merhy Y H. Waitzkin. 2001. “Managed care in Latin America: the new common sense in health policy reform”. Social Science and Medicine. 52 (8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00243-4
Jean-Louis, R. 1989. “Diagnostic de l'état de santé en Haïti”. Forum Libre (Santé, Médicineet Democratie en Haïti). 1.
Jha, P., N. J. D. Nagelkerke, E. N. NGUGI et al. 2001. “Reducing HIV transmission in developing countries”. Science. 292 (5515). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1058187
Kaplan, E. H. Y M. H. Merson. 2002. “Allocating HIV-prevention resource: Balancing efficiency and equity”. American Journal of Public Health. 92 (12). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.12.1905
Kew, O., V. Morris-Glasgow, M. Landaverde et al. 2002. “Outbreak of Poliomyelitis in Hispaniola associated with circulating type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus”. Science. 296 (5566). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1068284
Kim, J. Y., J. V. Millen, A. Irwin y J. Gershman (eds). 2000. Dying for growth: Global inequality and the health of the poor. Common Courage Press. Monroe.
Kim, J. Y., A. Shakow, A. Castro, C. Vanderwarker Y P. Farmer. 2003. “Tuberculosis control”. En R. Smith, R. Beaglehole, D. Woodward y N. Drager (eds.). Global public goods for health: Health economic and public health perspectives. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Kumaranayake, L. Y C. Watts. 2001. “Resource allocation and priority setting of HIV/AIDS interventions: Addressing the generalized epidemic in Sub-Saharan Africa”. Journal of International Development. 413. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.797
Laurell, A. C. 2001. “Health reform in Mexico: The promotion of inequality”. International Journal of Health Services. 31 (2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/V1VX-BDQB-UHX7-FEGP
López-Acuña, D. 2000. La naturaleza de las reformas del sector de la salud en las Américas y su importancia para la cooperación técnica de OPS. OPS/OMS/División de Desarrollo de Sistemas y Servicios de Salud. Washington.
Lurie, P., P. Hintzen Y R. A. Lowe. 1995. “Socioeconomic obstacles to HIV prevention and treatment in developing countries: The roles of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank”. AIDS. 9 (6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199506000-00002
Marins, J. R. P., L. F. Jamal, S. Y. Chen, M. B. Barros, E. S. Hudes, A. A. Barbosa et al. 2003. “Dramatic improvement in survival among adult Brazilian AIDS patients”. AIDS. 17 (11). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200307250-00012
Marrero, A., J. A. Caminero, R. Rodríguez Y N. E. Billo. 2000. “Towards elimination of tuberculosis in a low income country: The experience of Cuba, 1962-97”. Thorax. 55 (1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/thorax.55.1.39
Marseille, E., P. B. Hofmann Y J. G. Kahn. 2002. “HIV prevention before HAART in Sub-Saharan Africa”. Lancet. 359 (9320). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08705-6
Martí, J. 1894 [1959]. La cuestión racial. Lex. La Habana.
Ministerio de Finanzas y Precios. 1998. Políticas, estrategias y programas. Ministerio de Salud Pública. La Habana. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.sld.cu/sistema_de_salud/estrategias.html.
Ministerio de Salud Pública (MINSAP). 2001. Anuario estadístico 2001 Infomed, Red Telemática de Salud en Cuba. La Habana. Obtenido el 20 de septiembre de 2003 en http://bvs.sld.cu/cgi–bin/wxis/ anuario/?IsisScript=anuario/iah.xis&tag5001=mostrar^m694& tag5009=STANDARD&tag5008=10&tag5007= Y&tag5003=anuario& tag5021=e&tag5022=2001&tag5023=694.
–. 1996. “Conferencia del Dr. Carlos Dotres, Ministro de Salud Pública, ofrecida el día 18 de julio 1996 en el teatro del Minrex”. Infomed, Red Telemática de Salud en Cuba. La Habana. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.infomed.sld.cu/discursos/ minrex.html.
Mintz, S. 1985a. Sweetness and power: The place of sugar in modern history. Penguin. Nueva York.
–. 1985b. “From plantations to peasantries in the Caribbean”. En S. W. Mintz y S. Price (eds.). Caribbean contours. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
Moatti, J-P., T. Barnett, Y. Souteyrand, Y-A. Flori, J. Dumoulin Y B. Coriat. 2003. “Financing efficient HIV care and antiretroviral treatment to mitigate the impact of the AIDS epidemic on economic and human development”. En J-P. Moatti, B. Coriat, Y. Souteyrand, T. Barnett, J. Dumoulin y Y-A. Flori (eds.). Economics of AIDS and sccess to HIV/AIDS care in developing countries. Issues and challenges. Agence Nationale de Recherches sur le Sida. París.
Murray, C. J. L. Y A. D. Lopez. 1996. The global burden of disease. Organización Mundial de la Salud, Harvard School of Public Health, Banco Mundial. Ginebra.
Musgrove, P. 1999. “Public spending on health care: How are different criteria related?”. Health Policy. 47 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-8510(99)00024-X
Nicholls, S., R. Mclean, K. Theodore, R. Henry, B. Camara et al. 2001. “Modelling the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in the english speaking Caribbean: The case of Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica”. Journal of South African Economics. 68 (5). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2000.tb01285.x
OMS (ORGANIZACIÓN MUNDIAL DE LA SALUD). 1999. Report on infectious diseases: Removing obstacles to healthy development. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Ginebra.
–. 2000. World health report 2000: health systems: Improving performance. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Ginebra.
–. 2001. Macroeconomics and health: Investing in health for economic development. Comisión de Macroeconomía y Salud. Ginebra.
–. 2002. World health report 2002. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Ginebra.
ONUSIDA. 2001. AIDS epidemic update. Onusida. Ginebra.
–. 2002. Epidemiological fact sheets on HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections: Haiti. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.ONUSIDA.org/html/pub/publications/fact–sheets01/ haiti_en_pdf.pdf.
–. 2004. Report on the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Onusida. Ginebra. OPS (Organización Panamericana de la Salud). 1993. Haiti-L'aide d'urgence en santé. Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Puerto Príncipe.
–. 1996. “Progress of activities in health sector reform”. Executive Committee of the Directing Council, 26th Meeting of the Subcommittee on Planning and Programming, SPP27/7. Washington. March 25-27.
–. 2002a. Health in the Americas 2002. Pan American Health Organization. Washington.
–. 2002b. “Average prices of a one year treatment with antiretrovirals in countries of Latin America and the Caribbean”. Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Washington. Obtenido el 20 de septiembre de 2003 en www.paho.org/English/HCP/HCA/ analysis.pdf.
–. 2003. “Country profiles: Haiti”. Epidemiological Bulletin. 24 (1). Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.paho.org/english/ dd/ais/EB_v24n1.pdf.
OPS, PNUD Y CARICOM. 1999. “Implementing decentralization and financing strategies while protecting the poor”. Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Washington. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.paho.org/English/HDP/HDD/policygreeneonline.pdf.
Pape, J. W. 2000. “AIDS in Haiti: 1980-96”. En G. Howe y A. Cobley (eds.). The Caribbean AIDS epidemic. University of the West Indies Press. Kingston.
Pape, J. W., B. Liautaud, F. Thomas, J. R. Mathurin, M. M. ST. Amand, M. BONCy et al. 1983. “Characteristics of the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in Haiti”. New England Journal of Medicine. 309 (16). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198310203091603
Pérez-Ávila, J. 2003. “Atención integral y tratamiento del VIH en Cuba”. En Segundo foro latinoamericano de VIH/sida y ETS. La Habana.
Pérez-Ávila, J., R. Peña-Torres, J. Joanes-Fiol, M. Lantero-Abreu Y H. Arazoza-Rodríguez. 1996. “HIV control in Cuba”. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 50 (5). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0753-3322(96)87661-X
PNUD (Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo). 1990. Human development report 1990. Oxford University Press para PNUD. Nueva York.
–. 2000. Human development report 2000. Oxford University Press para PNUD. Nueva York.
–. 2003. Human development report 2003. Oxford University Press para PNUD. Nueva York. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.undp.org/hdr2003/.
Portuondo, Fernando y Hortensia Pichardo. 1974. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes: escritos. Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. La Habana.
Rosen, G. 1974. From medical police to social medicine: Essays on the history of health care. Neale Watson Academic Publications. Nueva York.
Russell, S. Y L. Gilson. 1997. “User fee policies to promote health service access for the poor: A wolf in sheep's clothing?”. International Journal of Health Services. 27 (2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/YHL2-F0EA-JW1M-DHEJ
Rylko-Bauer, B. Y P. Farmer. 2002. “Managed care or managed inequality? A call for critiques of market-based medicine”. Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 16(4). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.2002.16.4.476
Smith, R., R. Beaglehole, D. Woodward y N. Drager (eds.). 2003. Global public goods for health: Health economic and public health perspectives. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Sullivan, C. A., J. R. Meigh Y T. S. Fediw. 2002. Derivation and testing of the water poverty index phase I. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. Wallingford. Obtenido el 17 de abril de 2004 en www.ciaonet.org/wps/suc01/suc01.pdf.
T'hoen, E. 2000. “Statement from Médecins sans Frontières”. Campaign for access to essential medicines at the Health Issues Group DG Trade. Brussels, 26 June.
Trouiller, P. Y P. L. Olliaro. 1999. “Drug development output: What proportion for tropical diseases?”. Lancet. 354 (9173). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)75299-5
Waitzkin, H. Y C. Iriart. 2001. “How the United States exports managed care to developing countries”. International Journal of Health Services. 31 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/BQDD-59K2-3PQD-RE9Q
Wilkinson, R. G. 1992. “National mortality rates: The impact of inequality?”. American Journal of Public Health. 82 (8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.82.8.1082
